A Guide to Poisonous Mushrooms

Fly Agaric i
Galerina species ii
The Ivory funnel i
Oyster rollrims i
Yellow stainers i
False parasols i
Death Caps i
Brown roll-rims iv

BY ANDREW KILIAN | AMATEUR FIELD MYCOLOGIST, MUSHROOM IDENTIFYER & CULTIVATOR

Mushrooms, with their ethereal beauty and mysterious allure, have captivated humans for centuries. While many species are culinary delights, others harbor deadly secrets. This guide is your essential companion in navigating the complex world of poisonous mushrooms in South Africa.

It’s crucial to understand that mushroom identification is a serious matter. Consuming even a small amount of the wrong species can lead to severe illness or death. This guide is designed to provide you with the knowledge and tools necessary to distinguish between safe and hazardous fungi.

Remember: This guide is a starting point, not a definitive authority. Always consult with a trained mycologist or mushroom expert before consuming any wild mushroom.

Let’s embark on this journey together, armed with knowledge and caution, to unlock the secrets of these fascinating but potentially dangerous organisms.

Mushrooms that should be avoided for any culinary purposes

Poisonous species

– Mushrooms that are well documented to cause serious health risks, from gastric upset to death.

Mushrooms that are past their prime

Mushrooms that are past their prime can be unappetizing and potentially harmful. Mushrooms with slimy caps, discoloured spots, foul odour or bug/mould infected should be avoided.

Raw mushrooms

Some mushrooms, like morels, boletus species and certain other wild varieties, contain toxins that are destroyed by cooking. Eating these raw can lead to gastrointestinal distress or other health issues.

Raw mushrooms contain chitin, a tough compound that can be hard to digest. Cooking mushrooms breaks down chitin, making them easier on the digestive system.

Like other raw foods, raw mushrooms can harbour bacteria that are killed by cooking.

For safety and nutritional benefits, it is generally recommended to cook mushrooms before eating. However, common varieties like button mushrooms can be eaten raw in moderation, as long as they are properly cleaned.

Wild mushrooms that cannot be identified

In general, it is crucial to accurately identify mushrooms before consumption. When in doubt, consult a mycologist or rely on mushrooms purchased from reputable sources.

Identification platforms on Facebook

While most mushrooms are safe to touch and smell, it’s important to handle them with care, wash your hands afterward, and be aware of any personal sensitivities or allergies.

Poisonous species list

Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the Death Cap, is one of the most toxic mushrooms found in the wild. The Death Cap is responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide. Extreme caution and proper education are essential for anyone who forages for wild mushrooms.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is usually greenish to yellowish, but can also be white or brown. It is 5–15 cm in diameter, smooth, and often sticky to the touch.
  • Gills: The gills are white, free from attachment to the stem, and densely packed.
  • Stem: The stem is white, 8–15 cm long, and 1–2 cm thick, often with a bulbous base and a white, sac-like volva at the base.
    Spore Print: The spore print is white.
  • Smell: In mature specimens, a sweet, somewhat sickly odour may be present.
    Habitat
    Distribution and
  • habitat: Amanita phalloides is commonly found in South Africa. It grows in symbiosis with various hardwoods such as oak and pine. It is typically found in forests and wooded areas.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxins in Amanita phalloides are amatoxins, particularly alpha-amanitin. These toxins inhibit RNA polymerase II, preventing protein synthesis and leading to cell death.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning typically appear 6–12 hours after ingestion and include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration. After an apparent recovery phase, liver and kidney failure may occur, leading to death if not treated promptly.
  • Lethal Dose: As little as half a cap can be lethal for an adult human. Children are even more vulnerable.
    Treatment
  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek emergency medical care immediately. Activated charcoal may be administered to bind the toxin.
  • Medical Treatment: Hospital treatment often involves intravenous fluids, medications to counteract the toxins, and possibly liver transplantation in severe cases.

Prevention

  • Identification: Properly identifying mushrooms is crucial. Avoid picking and consuming wild mushrooms unless you are absolutely certain of their identity.

Lookalikes

  • I’kowe (Termitomyces umkowaani)
  • Smooth parasol (Leucoagaricus leucothites)
  • Stubble Rosegills (Volvopluteus gloiocephalus)

Amanita pantherina, commonly known as the Panther Cap, is a toxic mushroom known for its distinctive appearance and psychoactive properties.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 5–12 cm in diameter, brown to dark brown, with white warts or spots scattered across the surface. It is convex when young, flattening out with age with a striated cap margin.
  • Gills: The gills are white, free from attachment to the stem, and closely spaced.
  • Stem: The stem is white, 7–12 cm long, and 1–2 cm thick, with a slightly bulbous base. It has a white ring near the top of the stem, which may disappear in older specimens.
  • Volva: The base of the stem is encased in a white, sack-like volva.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is white.
    • Smell: It has a mild or slightly unpleasant odor.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Amanita pantherina is commonly found in South Africa. It flourishes in both temperate and tropical forests, typically in association with oak, beech, pine, and spruce trees.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxins in Amanita pantherina are ibotenic acid and muscimol. These compounds affect the central nervous system.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear within 30 minutes to 2 hours after ingestion and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, dizziness, muscle spasms, visual disturbances, and in severe cases, seizures and coma.
  • Psychoactive Effects: In addition to toxicity, Amanita pantherina can cause hallucinations and altered perceptions due to its psychoactive compounds.

Treatment

  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek medical attention immediately. Activated charcoal may be administered to limit absorption of the toxins.
  • Medical Treatment: Supportive care in a hospital setting is typically required, focusing on managing symptoms. Benzodiazepines may be used to control seizures and agitation.
    Prevention
  • Identification: Proper identification is crucial to avoid accidental ingestion. The Panther Cap can be mistaken for other edible mushrooms, so thorough knowledge or expert consultation is essential.

Lookalikes

  • Blushers (Amanita rubescens)
  • Grey spotted Amanita (Amanita excelsa)

Commonly known as the fly agaric, is a notable mushroom recognized for its distinctive appearance.
Its striking appearance has led to it being featured in multiple myths and fairy tales and in modern art and designs.

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Description

  • Appearance: It has a bright red cap with white spots, white gills, and a white stem with a ring.
  • Size: The cap can range from 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 inches) in diameter.
  • Habitat: Often found in forest areas across South Africa. They have a symbiotic relationship with trees, particularly birch, pine, and spruce.

Toxicity

  • Toxic Compounds: Contains ibotenic acid and muscimol, which are psychoactive and can cause hallucinations, dizziness, and nausea if ingested.
  • Symptoms: Ingestion can lead to various symptoms, such as euphoria, altered perception, nausea, vomiting, and in severe cases, seizures or coma.
    Modern Considerations
  • Safety: It is not recommended for consumption due to its toxicity and unpredictable effects.

Lookalikes

• Russula species

Chlorophyllum molybdites, commonly known as the Green-spored Parasol or False Parasol, is a highly toxic mushroom that is often mistaken for edible species. Chlorophyllum molybdites is a dangerous mushroom that should be avoided due to its toxic properties. Proper identification and caution are essential for anyone collecting wild mushrooms to prevent accidental poisoning.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 10–30 cm in diameter, white to light brown, and covered with large, brown scales. It is convex when young, flattening out with age and often developing a slight uplift in the centre.
  • Gills: The gills are free from the stem, starting white and turning greenish as the mushroom matures.
  • Stem: The stem is white, 10–30 cm long, and 1–2 cm thick, with a movable ring near the top. It often has a bulbous base.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is green, which is a key distinguishing feature.
  • Smell: It has a mild or somewhat unpleasant odor.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Chlorophyllum molybdites is found in South Africa, especially in warm regions, as well as other parts of the world with similar climates.
  • Environment: It commonly grows in lawns, gardens, and grassy areas, often appearing in fairy rings or clusters. It fruits from late spring to autumn.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The exact toxins are not well-characterized, but they cause severe gastrointestinal distress.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear within 1–3 hours after ingestion and include severe vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and dehydration. Symptoms can last for several hours to a few days.
  • Severity: While not typically life-threatening, the symptoms can be severe and require medical attention, especially in young children, the elderly, or individuals with compromised health.
    Treatment
  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek medical attention immediately. Activated charcoal may be administered to bind the toxins.
  • Medical Treatment: Treatment is generally supportive, focusing on rehydration and managing symptoms. Intravenous fluids may be necessary in severe cases.

Lookalikes

  • Shaggy parasols (Chlorophyllum brunneum)
  • White parasols (Macrolepiota zeyheri)
  • Parasol mushrooms (Macrolepiota procera)
  • Macrolepiota dolichaula – KZN
Yellow stainers i

Agaricus xanthodermus, commonly known as the Yellow-staining Mushroom, is a toxic mushroom often mistaken for edible varieties within the Agaricus genus. When bruised, these mushrooms can stain bright yellow and have an off-putting chemical odor similar to that of ink.

Yellow stainers should be avoided due to its toxic properties and potential for causing gastrointestinal distress.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 5–15 cm in diameter, white to cream-colored, and smooth or slightly scaly. It can be convex when young, becoming flat or slightly upturned with age. When bruised, the cap turns a yellow color, especially at the edges.
  • Gills: The gills are free from the stem, starting pale pink and turning chocolate brown as the mushroom matures.
  • Stem: The stem is white, 6–12 cm long, and 1–2 cm thick, with a slight bulbous base. A large, white, membranous ring is present near the top of the stem.
  • Flesh: When cut or bruised, the flesh of the mushroom turns a distinctive bright yellow, especially at the base of the stem.
  • Smell: It has a strong, unpleasant phenolic or ink-like odor, which becomes more pronounced when the mushroom is cooked or heated.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Agaricus xanthodermus is commonly found in South Africa, It grows in grasslands, gardens, parks, and sometimes in wooded areas. It often appears in rings or groups from late summer to autumn.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxin is phenol, which can cause gastrointestinal distress.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear within 30 minutes to 2 hours after ingestion and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and sometimes sweating and flushing.
  • Severity: While not typically life-threatening, the symptoms can be severe and unpleasant. Individuals may react differently, with some experiencing more intense symptoms than others.

Treatment

  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek medical attention. Induced vomiting or activated charcoal may be recommended to prevent further absorption of the toxin.
  • Medical Treatment: Treatment is generally supportive, focusing on managing symptoms. Rehydration may be necessary if significant vomiting or diarrhea occurs.

Lookalikes

  • Field mushrooms (Agaricus campestris)

Hebeloma crustuliniforme, commonly known as Poison Pie, is a toxic mushroom that is often found in temperate regions, especially during winter months in the Western Cape.


Hebeloma crustuliniforme is a mushroom that should be avoided due to its toxic properties and potential for causing gastrointestinal distress.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 4–10 cm in diameter, convex when young, becoming more flattened with age. It is usually a creamy white to pale brown color with a smooth or slightly sticky surface, sometimes with a darker center.
  • Gills: The gills are attached to the stem, crowded, and cream-colored, turning darker with age with tiny dots on the gills.
  • Stem: The stem is 4–10 cm long, 0.5–1.5 cm thick, white to pale brown, and often has a slightly swollen base.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is brown.
  • Smell: It has a distinctive radish-like odor.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Hebeloma crustuliniforme is widely distributed in the Western Cape. It grows in a variety of woodland habitats, often under deciduous and coniferous trees, and is commonly found in grassy areas, gardens, and parks.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The exact toxins are not well-characterized, but ingestion can cause gastrointestinal distress.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning typically appear within 30 minutes to a few hours after ingestion and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. The severity of symptoms can vary.
  • Severity: While not typically life-threatening, the symptoms can be very unpleasant and may require medical attention, especially in vulnerable individuals.

Treatment

  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek medical attention. Activated charcoal may be administered to prevent further absorption of the toxins.
  • Medical Treatment: Treatment is generally supportive, focusing on rehydration and managing symptoms. Anti-nausea medications may be used to control vomiting.

Lookalikes

  • Field mushrooms (Agaricus campestris)

Brown Roll-Rims or Poison Pax, is a toxic mushroom that has been associated with severe and sometimes fatal poisoning. This is a highly toxic mushroom that should be avoided due to its potential for causing severe and potentially fatal poisoning.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is 5–15 cm in diameter, convex to flattened, with a rolled rim, especially when young. It is typically brown to yellow-brown and can have a velvety or smooth surface.
  • Gills: The gills are decurrent (running down the stem), crowded, and yellow-brown to rust-brown. They bruise and darken when handled.
  • Stem: The stem is 3–10 cm long, 1–2 cm thick, and the same color as the cap or slightly paler. It is often cylindrical and may be slightly swollen at the base.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is brown.
  • Smell: It has a mild to slightly sour odor.


Habitat

  • These mushrooms fruit in a variety of woodland habitats, often under birch, conifer and poplar trees, as well as in grassy areas. It typically fruits from late summer to autumn.


Toxicity

  • Toxins: Paxillus involutus contains paxilline and other compounds that can cause severe reactions, including immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. The toxins accumulate and can cause delayed hypersensitivity reactions.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning can be delayed and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and severe reactions such as hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells), leading to kidney failure, respiratory distress, and death in severe cases.
  • Severity: Poisoning can be severe and potentially fatal, especially with repeated ingestion over time. Even a single ingestion can be dangerous for some individuals.


Lookalikes

  • Pine rings (Lactarius deliciosus)
  • shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes)

Commonly known as Copper trumpets or the Jack-o’-Lantern mushroom, this toxic mushroom is notable for its bright orange color and bioluminescence properties. Omphalotus olearius is a mushroom that should be avoided due to its toxic properties and potential for causing severe gastrointestinal distress.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is 5–20 cm in diameter, bright orange to orange-yellow, and convex to flat with age. It often has a smooth or slightly scaly surface.
  • Gills: The gills are decurrent (running down the stem), closely spaced, and orange. They exhibit bioluminescence, glowing faintly greenish in the dark.
  • Stem: The stem is 5–20 cm long, 1–2.5 cm thick, and orange to yellow. It is typically central but can be off-center.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is white to pale yellow.
  • Smell: It has a pleasant, mushroom-like odor.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Widespread, however rarely observed in South Africa. It grows in clusters on decaying wood, often at the base of hardwood trees such as oaks and chestnuts. It fruits from late summer to autumn.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxins are illudins, which can cause severe gastrointestinal distress.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning typically appear 1–3 hours after ingestion and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and excessive salivation. Symptoms can last for several hours to a couple of days.
  • Severity: While not typically life-threatening, the symptoms can be very unpleasant and may require medical attention, especially in vulnerable individuals.

Treatment

  • Immediate Care: If ingestion is suspected, seek medical attention immediately. Activated charcoal may be administered to bind the toxins.
  • Medical Treatment: Treatment is generally supportive, focusing on rehydration and managing symptoms. Anti-nausea medications may be used to control vomiting.

Lookalikes

  • Pine rings (Lactarius deliciosus)

 

Oyster rollrims i

Oyster rollrims or the Velvet Roll-rim, is a mushroom that, while not highly toxic, should still be avoided due to its potential to cause gastrointestinal distress.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is 5–15 cm in diameter, fan-shaped to semicircular, and often wavy or irregular. It is typically a yellow-brown to orange-brown color, with a velvety texture when young, becoming smoother with age.
  • Gills: The gills are decurrent (running down the stem or attachment point), pale yellow to brownish, and widely spaced. They are soft and can bruise easily.
  • Stem: The stem is usually absent or rudimentary since Tapinella panuoides often grows shelf-like directly from wood.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is brown.
  • Smell: It has a mild, pleasant mushroom odor.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Tapinella panuoides is found in the Western Cape, It grows on decaying wood, particularly on coniferous trees, and is commonly found on stumps, fallen logs, and other wood debris. It fruits from late summer to autumn.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The specific toxins in Tapinella panuoides are not well-characterized, but ingestion can cause gastrointestinal distress.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning typically appear within a few hours after ingestion and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. The severity of symptoms can vary.
  • Severity: While not typically life-threatening, the symptoms can be very unpleasant and may require medical attention, especially in vulnerable individuals.

Lookalikes

  • Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species)

 

The Ivory Funnel or Sweating Mushroom, is a highly toxic mushroom that can cause severe poisoning.

Clitocybe dealbata is a highly toxic mushroom that can cause severe and potentially life-threatening poisoning. Proper identification and caution are essential for anyone collecting wild mushrooms to prevent accidental ingestion.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 2–5 cm in diameter, white to pale cream, and convex when young, becoming flat or slightly depressed with age. The surface is smooth and may develop a wavy margin.
  • Gills: The gills are decurrent (running down the stem), closely spaced, and white or pale cream.
  • Stem: The stem is 3–5 cm long, 0.5–1 cm thick, white to cream, and smooth. It is typically cylindrical and has no ring.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is white.
  • Smell: It has a faint, sometimes indistinct odor.

Habitat

  • It grows in grassy areas such as lawns, meadows, and pastures, mulched areas, often appearing in rings or clusters.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxin in Clitocybe dealbata is muscarine, which affects the parasympathetic nervous system.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear within 15 minutes to 2 hours after ingestion and include excessive salivation, sweating, tears, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blurred vision, and difficulty breathing. Severe poisoning can lead to bradycardia (slow heart rate), hypotension (low blood pressure), and in extreme cases, respiratory failure.
  • Severity: Poisoning can be severe and potentially life-threatening, especially without prompt medical treatment.

Lookalikes

  • The Miller (Clitocybe prunulus)

Leucocoprinus birnbaumii, commonly known as the Plantpot dapperling or yellow dapperling, is a small, bright yellow fungus often found in greenhouses and potted plants.

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Appearance

  • Cap: Bright yellow, bell-shaped, often with fine scales, and can reach up to 5 cm in diameter.
  • Gills: Free from the stem, closely spaced, and yellow.
  • Stem: Thin, yellow, and often has a ring.

Habitat

  • Distribution: Cosmopolitan, found worldwide.
  • Environment: Commonly grows in the soil of potted plants, greenhouses, and other humid environments. It thrives in rich, organic soils often used for houseplants.

Toxicity

  • Edibility: Considered toxic and not recommended for consumption. While not deadly, it can cause gastrointestinal distress if ingested.
  • Symptoms: Ingestion can lead to nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
    Management
  • Control: Difficult to eradicate completely from potted plants. It can be minimized by:
    • Improving drainage.
    • Reducing watering frequency.
    • Removing the fruiting bodies when they appear.

Lookalikes

  • Fragile dapperling (Leucocoprinus fragilissimus)

Pholiotina rugosa, also known as Conocybe filaris, is a highly toxic mushroom that contains lethal amatoxins.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically 1–4 cm in diameter, conical to bell-shaped, and tan to light brown. It has a smooth surface that can become slightly wrinkled with age.
  • Gills: The gills are adnate to adnexed (broadly attached to narrowly attached), closely spaced, and brown to rust-colored.
  • Stem: The stem is 4–10 cm long, 0.2–0.5 cm thick, slender, and fragile. It is the same color as the cap or paler, often with a distinct ring.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is rusty brown.
    • Smell: It has a mild or indistinct odor.

Habitat

  • Pholiotina rugosa grows in grassy areas, wood chips, compost, and sometimes on decaying wood. It often appears in gardens, lawns, potted plants and parks.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxins are amatoxins, which inhibit RNA polymerase II, preventing protein synthesis and leading to cell death. These toxins are the same as those found in the deadly Amanita species.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear 6–24 hours after ingestion and include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration. After a latent period, symptoms may subside temporarily before returning with severe liver and kidney damage, leading to jaundice, seizures, coma, and death if not treated.
  • Lethal Dose: Ingestion of even a small amount can be fatal.

Lookalikes

  • Mowers mushrooms (Panaeolus foenisecii)
  • Common field caps (Agrocybe pediades)
  • Wavy caps (Psilocybe cyanescens)
  • Conocybe tenera
  • Galerina species

Galerina species, commonly referred to as Little Brown Mushrooms (LBMs), include some highly toxic species, most notably Galerina marginata. These mushrooms contain dangerous amatoxins and can be easily mistaken for edible species.

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Identification

  • Cap: The cap is typically small, ranging from 1–5 cm in diameter, and can be convex to flat. The color varies from yellow-brown to orange-brown, often becoming darker with age. The cap surface may be smooth or slightly sticky when moist.
  • Gills: The gills are attached to the stem, close to crowded, and vary in color from pale brown to dark brown with age.
  • Stem: The stem is slender, 2–8 cm long, and 0.2–0.5 cm thick, often with a ring or remnants of a partial veil. It is usually the same color as the cap or slightly paler, with a fibrous texture.
  • Spore Print: The spore print is rusty brown.
  • Smell: It has a mild or indistinct odor.

Habitat

  • Galerina species are found worldwide, particularly in temperate and boreal regions. They grow on decaying wood, leaf litter, and mossy areas, often in forests and sometimes in grassy areas. They can fruit throughout the year, especially during wet seasons.

Toxicity

  • Toxins: The primary toxins in toxic Galerina species are amatoxins, which inhibit RNA polymerase II, preventing protein synthesis and leading to cell death. These toxins are the same as those found in the deadly Amanita species.
  • Symptoms: Symptoms of poisoning usually appear 6–24 hours after ingestion and include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration. After a latent period, symptoms may subside temporarily before returning with severe liver and kidney damage, leading to jaundice, seizures, coma, and death if not treated.
  • Lethal Dose: Ingestion of even a small amount can be fatal.

Lookalikes

  • Mowers mushrooms (Panaeolus foenisecii)
  • Common field caps (Agrocybe pediades)
  • Wavy caps (Psilocybe cyanescens)
  • Conocybe tenera

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